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Is Google treading on Apple’s domain?
In the past, the relationship between Apple and Google had been very pleasant. For years, the two companies focused on different parts of the market and did not interfere with each other’s territory. But recently, Google has been exploring various new horizons to expand its business, but by doing this, the search giant has intercepted the territory of Apple.
Recent developments
According to various analysts, after the success of iPhone and Apple apps store, Google and also Apple have plans to move deeper into each other’s business. It seems that Apple wanted to get into advertising, while Google sought a music service, Smartphone business and netbooks.
Rivalry heats-up: The tiff between the two giant can be seen in the recent developments; Apple rejected the Google Voice application for the iPhone and on the contrary, Google is launching its own branded Smartphone and netbook in 2010. The two companies also shared close ties at its highest level, but Google CEO, Mr. Eric Schmidt resigned from Apple’s board in August.
Browser-OS war: Google has developed an operating system called Chrome operating system for light PCs like netbooks that would compete with Apple’s Macintosh machines. Further, its Chrome web browser competes with Apple’s Safari.
Acquisition spree: In November, Google had acquired a mobile-advertising company AdMob Inc for $750 million. Sources said Apple had also pursued a deal with the start-up company. It seems that Apple will be benefitted with the AdMob’s acquisition as the latter could provide profits via advertising in some of the apps in its App Store. At present, about 25,000 apps are free to consumers and supported by advertising.
Recently, Google has also acquired online-music company LaLa Media Inc before Apple could take its chances.
Mobile front: Apple’s iPhone is already a hit in the market and sources said that the company will launch its fourth generation “iPhone 4” in June, 2010 with 5 megapixel camera. But, Google has also been planning for an all-out assault on the mobile-phone market through its own branded handset, codenamed “Nexus One.” It is assumed that the device will be one of the most advanced Smartphones present in the market with Android operating system, and will directly challenge Apple’s iPhone supremacy.
It is reported that the search giant is also working with various mobile phone makers to incorporate Google apps and developing handsets with more prominent Google branding.
Digital music: Apple’s iTunes has been dominant in the field of digital music, while Google has started in the territory. Google has recently introduced a music search and listening service with Lala as one of several partners. Further, Google had shown the integration of its music service with Chrome OS, its new Web-based operating system and provide an alternative to iTunes.
Discussion
With $22 billion cash in hand, Google is in hiring spree. It bought display-ad company Teracent, Internet-phone provider Gizmo5 and AppJet, online collaboration software manufacturer.
However, Apple, which has $34 billion in cash, has done fewer acquisitions and is searching for iPhone-related technologies. However, due to rumor of Apple Tablet in January, its shares surge and almost reached market parity with Google and Wal-Mart with market value to $188 billion.
Convert flip video to WMV/AVI for importing to iRiver on Mac
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Los Angeles Scores High as Alpha World City
Los Angeles, California, is one of several U.S. cities, along with New York City and Chicago, to enjoy the designation of “alpha world city”, a concept developed at England’s Loughborough University to identify strategic geographical locations that play an important role in the ongoing process of globalization. Essentially a 12-point scale, the Loughborough system divides the world’s leading cities into three categories: alpha, beta or gamma, depending on whether and to what extent the city in question satisfies a dozen general criteria.
With twelve points each, New York City, London and Tokyo are the undisputed point leaders in what is really a two-tier classification system within the overall “alpha world city” category. Within the alpha group, Los Angeles is a second tier designate that meets ten of the twelve characteristics ascribed by Loughborough University to the world’s leading cities.
Name recognition is at the top of the list of characteristics every alpha world city must have. In the world of alpha cities, the mere mention of a city’s name transcends any and all geographical boundaries. Consider the fact that many cities around the world share the same name. However, there is universal agreement that a reference to Paris, London or New York, for example, automatically refers to one and only one specific city in France, the United Kingdom or the United States, respectively. Much the same is true of Los Angeles, also universally recognized simply as “L.A.”, the bustling economic and cultural center on the U.S. West Coast.
Here’s a look at several other characteristics on the Loughborough University list that help qualify the City of Los Angeles as an alpha world city:
- An alpha world city has a substantial population. According to 2006 estimates by the U.S. Census Bureau, L.A.’s population is 3.8 million, making it the largest city in California and the second largest city in the United States after New York City.
- An alpha world city is a transportation nexus, usually with an important international airport used as a hub by a number of international air carriers. Los Angeles International Airport, or LAX, is the world’s fifth busiest commercial airport. LAX serves nearly ninety domestic and seventy international destinations and is considered a gateway to destinations throughout Asia and Oceania.
- An alpha world city is also a cultural nexus. As the focal point of America’s television and movie industry, film and TV studios in Los Angeles produce world-class entertainment seen both domestically and abroad.
These are only three of a dozen characteristics that define an alpha world city according to the Loughborough University scale. Los Angeles scores ten of twelve points on this scale, making it one of the planet’s most influential and important cities.
Matt Paolini is a senior researcher for CityBook.com, the family-safe Online Yellow Pages, which carries an extensive directory on Los Angeles film.
Taking A Look At Two Popular Brands Portable Satellite Radio Options
Portable satellite radio is the latest music trend, combining your MP3 collection with the ability to hear new music via Sirius or XM Radio. You’ll find that many of the portable ones are unique, sleek and more functional than an iPod. Many people like the versatility of a portable satellite radio since they can use it in the home, office or car, with minimal installation requirements.
Your best bet for Sirius brand is the Sirius S50 Radio (with car kit), which allows you to save your favorite channels and 50 hours of music, replay songs, import playlists, get game alerts, listen to six hours of music per charge and access traffic reports. It also comes with everything you need to listen to your subscription in the car.
The Stiletto 1 or Stiletto 2 portable satellite radio offers the most stylish new design. The only difference between the two is that the second model is slightly slimmer, lighter and has longer battery life.
Both will record up to 100 hours of radio programming, bookmark 10 hours of music at the touch of a button, store your MP3s on 2 GB of space, allow an hour’s worth of replay and provide personalized sports alerts. The Stiletto 1 usually runs for $199 and the Stiletto 2 is $329, but you can often find sales.
If you’re thinking about XM brand, there are some amazing options. The Pink Pioneer Inno offers: 50 hours of storage, sports and news tickers, one touch recording, artist and tune select features, MP3 storage and play. While girls may prefer the Pink Pioneer, guys can get excited about the gray Pioneer Inno or the Samsung Helix, which has all the same features.
Both of the Innos can also play Audible audio books as well! The Nexus has a little less storage space and lacks the bells and whistles (like sports and news updates), but it will get the job done for $129 full price or $70 on sale. Your Nexus will come complete with a mini-tuner, home stand and antenna, power adapter, RC cable, USB cable, rechargeable battery, earbuds, Napster CD, belt clip and remote.
Portable satellite radio is great for exercising, walking to class, plugging into your car and bringing your subscription to the office. XM brand offers live breaking news, while Sirius brand can give sports fans Game Alerts – which is a really neat feature that your iPod doesn’t currently have! Get the most out of your Sirius or XM subscription with a portable device that goes where you go.
Get all the information you need on the portable satellite radio from Mike Selvon’s portal, and leave a comment at his satellite radio network blog.
Nocturne: Lighting Up The River Tyne
Nocturne or ‘The Light on the Tyne’ is a colorful light artwork, which is on Newcastle’s Queen Elizabeth II Bridge.
The Queen Elizabeth II Bridge carries the Tyne and Wear Metro across the River Tyne, between Newcastle and Gateshead. It was purpose-built to form a part of the Tyne and Wear public transport network at a cost of £4.9million. The queen officially opened the bridge in 1981, although it had already been in use for some time.
Since 1980, Nexus, operators of the Tyne and Wear Metro, has been commissioning artwork to improve their customer’s public transport experience. In 2006, they commissioned Nayan Kulkarni to install Nocturne, a huge artwork on the bridge. As the River Tyne’s Millennium Bridge, Tyne Bridge, High Level and Swing Bridges were already illuminated, it was decided that this artwork should light up the Queen Elizabeth II Bridge too.
After observing the water below the bridge, Kulkarni decided to use colour-changing lights on Nocturne. He said: “Like the slowly moving waters below the steelwork, I wanted to create a light work that would constantly change.”
To light the bridge, Nocturne uses 36 banks of LED lights, which are set within the steel structure of the bridge itself. Kulkarni decided to use LED lights, as they are compact, long lasting and energy efficient. In fact, the LEDs that illuminate Nocturne use less energy in a year than the amount used by an average British family.
Nocturne or ‘The Light on the Tyne’ is a colorful light artwork, which is on Newcastle’s Queen Elizabeth II Bridge.
The Queen Elizabeth II Bridge carries the Tyne and Wear Metro across the River Tyne, between Newcastle and Gateshead. It was purpose-built to form a part of the Tyne and Wear public transport network at a cost of £4.9million. The queen officially opened the bridge in 1981, although it had already been in use for some time.
For Nocturne, the bridge was painted with two distinctive shades of blue, which meant that the artwork could also be enjoyed during the day. However, it is during the evening that Nocturne really comes alive, as the bridge is bathed in a kaleidoscope of colored lights. The colors of the bridge’s LED lights were based on photographs submitted by members of the public and this has given Kulkarni’s artwork a real community focus.
Since 1980, Nexus, operators of the Tyne and Wear Metro, has been commissioning artwork to improve their customer’s public transport experience. In 2006, they commissioned Nayan Kulkarni to install Nocturne, a huge artwork on the bridge. As the River Tyne’s Millennium Bridge, Tyne Bridge, High Level and Swing Bridges were already illuminated, it was decided that this artwork should light up the Queen Elizabeth II Bridge too.
Following its completion on 26 April 2007, Nocturne became the biggest light artwork in Britain and is expected to remain on the bridge for at least 15 years. Nocturne took 18 months to install and cost £300,000 to create, but when you see the bridge lit up in all of its glory, you’ll realise that it was worth every penny.
Beverley Bukowski Website: http://www.escortnewcastlekirsten.co.uk Beverley Bukowski is a former model from Newcastle, UK. She is a keen amateur journalist and used to be a Newcastle escort.
Attacks Against Indian Culture & the Role of Media in it
I am writing this after going through all the facts about what has recently happened around us and particularly the role of media in it. I will start with the flood of allegations against Sant Sri Asaramji Bapu. If we look at the whole episode with a little common sense than the whole matter will be crystal clear in from of us. I am feeling sorry for our so called intelligent media as how can they miss on these flaws. Or on the other hand, are they intentionally not showing the other side of the coin? If yes, then who is the one holding there hands for not showing the truth?
Let us start incident by incident with the first one that was happened in Ahmedabad. Two innocent gurukul children were found dead near Sabarmati River on 16/07/2008. Now as this issue is under investigation, therefore, I will not say much about it. Though there are some common things which even a blind man can see. However, our innocent public, who can believe whatever is shown to them buy our media, could not see/understand the conspiracy done behind it.
Ahemdabad Incident
Everyone knows that 18/07/2008 was an auspicious Guru Poonam day and on this day millions of Bapu followers come to Ahmedabad Ashram every year to take the blessings from their Guru. The program for this year was the same. Now if you just go a little deep into the incident that was occurred then you will find that something is fishy in it.
Point No. 1. – The kids were found missing on 03/07/2008 and a search was made for them but no one could find them. As per some other gurukul kids they were promised by someone that in the evening they will come and take them to show “Rath Yatra” in a car.
Now the question arises is that who were they who promised them for a free ride? Why only to gurukul kids and that too in a hidden way? This shows that a plot was made and somebody came there to execute it on that day. Hence, there is a possibility that someone came on that day and took the kids away from a particular location.
Point No. 2 – Now kids were found missing on 03/07/2008, however, no clue was found and suddenly on 16/07/2008 somebody found them dead near Sabarmati River. Then on 17/07/2008 there was no reaction from people and on 18/07/2008, right on Guru Poonam when millions of followers were scheduled to come to ashram, Ahmedabad band was announced when Vaghela family (Parents of deceased children) was not even in favor of it.
This shows another chapter of the same story that was started on 03/07/2008. As per the plan, bodies of the departed souls were kept near Sabarmati River and an announcement was made. A plan was already ready, therefore, on 18/07/2008 they showed their anger and Ahmedabad band was called. The question arises is that why was nothing happened in between from 03/07/2008 till 16/07/2008? Was somebody waiting for some particular day? There is again a chance of high possibility that this was done to disrupt the Guru Poonam celebrations at Ashram.
Point No. 3 – On 18/07/2008, different groups of anti social elements were scattered all over Ahmedabad and destroyed public property and harassed people that were going towards Ashram. They were beaten up and were stopped on the way towards ashram. People who were waiting in the queue for Bapu’s darshan were also harassed and many incidents of chain snatching were happened over there. Few people who were part of this mob entered into the Ashram (wearing white kurta-pajamas, claiming to be Bapu’s follower) and destroyed the vehicles which were in the parking of Ashram. Now why would sadhaks (Bapu followers) who were present inside the Ashram destroy their own vehicles? Why would sadhaks attack on other sadhaks who are coming to ashram?
When some of these anti social elements were held by Ashram people then they admitted that they have been hired by giving Rs.200 to do these activities in the bandh. As per some other sources, none of these were from Ahmedabad. Everyone in Ahmedabad very well knows Bapu and could not do this heinous act against him. As per an unofficial statement, 2 trucks full of these people were brought from Vadodara to disrupt activities in Ahmedabad Ashram. Hence, there is a possibility that other such people were also hired and brought down to Ahmedabad in trucks from different regions just to do this act.
From all the above points what I can infer is that a well planned high level conspiracy was done against Bapu and media just showed one aspect of it and that too in a way that the image of Saint gets diminished, who is a source of inspiration for millions of people around the world. This also raises questions against the media. Are they also been funded by some agencies to show only one part of the story and that too in a negative way?
Chindwara Incident
After Ahmedabad, the next target was Chindwara. Here, on 29/07/2008 and 31/07/2008 again two innocent gurukul children were killed and found dead in the bathroom of gurukul. Thankfully, local police solved this case and found another gurukul student “Rituraj” accountable for this crime with proper evidence. Media just showed this much and raised questions against Chindwara Ashram authorities and accused them of not taking care of children. This was done when parents of both the deceased children gave a clean chit to the Ashram and even they stated that some conspiracy has been done against ashram.
Now come to the other part of the story. These respectful investigative media persons did not even try to do a background check of Rituraj. Nobody tried to enquire whether or not there is a criminal case pending against his father? Whether or not there is a criminal history of his uncle? What is their financial background? How come within a month this family managed to get a brand new Qualis when the financial condition of the family is not too good? How come their lifestyle improved? Where did they suddenly get so much money from? Why after the death of Ramkrishan on 29/07/2008 this guy told Ramkrishan’s uncle to also take his child out of the gurukul otherwise the same thing can happen to his child? Just to add up, this guy was admitted to gurukul, just few days back on 10/07/2008. As a result, just like Ahmedabad Chindwara bandh was also called and mob attacked ashram people and destroyed ashram property.
Again the question arises, was this also a well planned incident? Who are financially assisting these people to do these acts? Our media, again showed only one side of the coin and did not even try to find out the truth behind it. Are they also likely to be involved? Is there a big nexus that is working against Bapu and Hindu Saints?
Physical assault
In a row of incidents that were happening, all of a sudden from nowhere a lady came into picture and started accusing Bapu for physical assault. The interview of this lady was shown live on one of the News channel. Now would you call it an irresponsible behavior of media or an intentional attempt of them to show this without even researching about the facts? The lady claimed that the incident was happened with her at Rewari in 2001. Just to let you know that Bapu is a famous personality and wherever he does satsang the whole world knows about it. It gets published on Ashram’s monthly magazine “Rishi Prasad” and along with that the dates of satsang are shown on several satellite TV channels. Hence, every day of Bapu or every famous person for that matter, gets registered. If they would have researched the truth about the dates she has claimed then they could have easily found out that Bapu was not in Rewari in the year 2001. Secondly, why after so many years this lady suddenly came into picture and started accusing Bapu? If this thing was happened to her then where was she during these many years? Why didn’t she report this to police?
Now the question that arises over here is, was this thing made up? Was the lady hired by someone? Was the news channel intentionally showed the live interview without any research? Was it planned to highlight this kind of thing after the Ahmedabad and Chindwara incidents to diminish the image of Saint?
Other Issues
There are many other incidents that happened side by side like blaming Bapu’s son Narayan Sai, Ashram’s land issue, raid at godhra pharmacy, questions against neem tel when it has already got approval from the government stating that no poisonous substance has been detected in it.
Indian Saints or Indian Culture?
Now, the big question is why all these things are happening against Bapu? Here, I would like to mention that this has happened almost with every popular Saint in India. Remember the allegations against Sathya Sai Baba, then against Shankracharya Jayant Saraswati, and most recently Swami Ramdev? Hence, it is not a particular Saint that is on the target but it is our rich Indian Culture which on its own is growing rapidly and the whole world very well the potential of it. However, some people do not like if we are growing with that pace. They know that Dharma is the only thing that is uniting all Indians and the major reason behind our growth.
The answer of this is again an assumption, however, has a very high possibility of being true. Also, it is a very broad picture that comes into our mind and need a genuine consideration with a clear and focused mind. Everyone knows that Bapu is a well known saint in India and has millions of followers all over the world. One fact is that as they are followers of Bapu, therefore, they are united, practice religion and make sure that Indian culture never die. You would agree that every saint who has some followers are definitely united and practice religion. Many of these people are also responsible for the growth of India and because of them India is set to become a super power. Even Bapu’s dream is also to see India at a position of “Vishwa Guru” by 2011. The possibilities of involvement of these people in any criminal activities or bad deeds are close to zero. The reason behind is there inclination towards spirituality. Clearly, these things are not at all liked by the anti social elements.
We know that world is facing grave danger today. With sharp fall in social, cultural and human values, mutual distrust and jealousy are increasing in the society, taking human beings far away from good values. Instead of providing security, cases of women being raped and murdered in the order of the day are becoming very common. In such a depressive scenario, spiritualism is the only way left to get rid of this situation. The teachings of saints and seers who have studied the human nature and intricacies of the life are useful and relevant. Our scriptures explain in detail such ideals, which are based on our culture, religion and philosophy. Hence, our Saints show people the right way of life and increase the capabilities of individuals. This is strengthening our culture, however, anti social elements want to destroy the roots of Indian culture completely.
Therefore, if one diminishes an image of a Saint then definitely it will have an impact on his followers and there belief in that Saint gets shattered. In turn, they will get divided and may follow a wrong direction. These people get vulnerable and can get easily molded. Hence, the anti social elements will become successful in destroying our culture. Because Bapu has millions of followers, therefore, if they succeed in their attempt then they can divide millions of people. Hence, by attacking popular saints one can easily divide the unity between there followers and in turn can break India and Indian culture. They want to take Dharma out of this country and want to weaken this country. Wise, sensible and intellectual people know that this country cannot survive without Dharma. Dharma is the only thing that is uniting us and guiding us in many ways and showing us different ways to become successful. Now the people/group/agency that wants to break the integrity of India and wants India not to flourish and follow the western way, has a soft target in front of them to do so and that is to attack Indian Saints. They know that because of them most Indians are united and are following religion and doing good things in life and being a part of India’s success. But they can’t see India and Indian culture growing and want us to lack behind in everything. They want us to consume coke, pepsi and these kinds of things so that it weakens our health and in turn we can’t grow physically and mentally. That is the reason when Swami Ramdev openly condemned the use of soft drinks then he was attacked as per the plan. Major reason was because after the popularity of Swami Ramdev, the sales of these companies were dropped very heavily. Just for your knowledge, the quantities of contents that are included in these soft drinks in India are much different from what it is in US.
Hence, it is a very broad issue and it needs to be investigated religiously and one should go into the depth of it. The attack is not only against our Saints but also against our culture which is the strongest in the world.
Role of media
The role of media is also very suspicious in these matters, which again raises many doubts in our mind. If you recollect, when the allegations against Shankracharya were made then it was the breaking news for almost all the channels and they focused on this issue for about a week. They completely tried to diminish the image of Shankracharya claiming that he has an affair with a women and charges of sexual assault. At that time people said that he cannot even get a bail and will get life sentence. However, when court case was filed against him and he came out of the court with a clean chit then no one showed anything about it. No one then put this news as breaking news. The only question is. Why?
Same happened when nothing was found in Swami Ramdev’s medicines. The issue was hyped as if he has done some murder and again it was breaking news. However, later when nothing was found then news channels also showed nothing on it. In the same way, media never showcased the good things that are being done by Bapu’s various ashrams in all over India. Free clothes, food, money that get distributed by Ashram on regular basis to poor people living in tribes all over India has never telecasted by media. The 100% result of the gurukuls has never been reported by media. They just know how to diminish the image of our Saints and that too without any evidences and without knowing the facts.
Media or Trial courts
Media has nowadays become so irresponsible that they are showing whatever they want to. As per the law, media has to show the version of the person against whom they are showing/writing in their respective channels/newspapers. However, they hardly do this. They even take the version of that person just to comply with the law, however, will show that in such a way that it does not impact their made up story. It seems that media is now our country’s new judicial arm. Without knowing the facts they start their trial on the person and make him/her an accused of a crime. Hence, create a wrong picture of that person in our mind.
Even our supreme court Chief Justice Mr. K.G. Balakrishnan has himself mentioned in one of his programs that “media trial” of pending cases is a wrong practice. The tendency of newspapers and news channels to carry unverified reports posed a danger to a free and fair constitutional judicial process. The manner in which “the modern media and telecommunications” intruded into a person’s life and caused embarrassing and damaging publicity, if left unchecked, would become “alarming.” The media trial, conveying public opinion in favour of one side or the other, particularly in criminal matters, had become increasingly frequent in recent times. Even before the court trial began, the accused was being shown as guilty.
This questioned the very premise on which the judicial system was based — the right of every party involved in a court proceeding to have his case adjudicated in a free, fair and unbiased manner.
Justice Balakrishnan said the media were a sentinel of democratic freedom. It was the responsibility of every person associated with the media to act responsibly with a sense of duty towards society and the nation. In fact, journalists were “vigilant watchdogs of civil liberties.” The right of the media to report court proceedings emanated from the right of the citizen to know. The media also had the duty to report fairly, objectively and accurately. He said the media should be wary of allowing itself to become a vehicle for exerting “mass pressure” as opposed to a “mere expression of mass opinion.”
Food for thought
What I strongly believe is that nothing will come out in all the made up cases against Bapu in the end. Media is hyping this issue to increase their channels TRP and may be for some other reason and once the issue gets resolved they will hardly show anything. Their only motive is to show what they want to show and diminish the image of Saints. Are they doing it under somebody else’s guidance? Is there a nexus of these people? These questions are for us to think about and let us pray that an unbiased investigation gets done in this case and the real picture comes out in front of us. I hope that this whole episode will turn in a blessing for all of us and results in a more powerful and strong Indian culture. At the end, we should also not forget Newton’s law that to every action there is always opposed an equal reaction.
Women Reconceiving The World!
From Chapter IV:
Barbara: I think that part of this urgency that we all feel, if it’s at all legitimate, has to do with this sense that the connecting and coordinating functions on this planet are occurring very rapidly. It’s perhaps comparable to a certain moment in the process of birth. We have to learn to handle our environmental crises; we have to learn to stop polluting our habitat; we have to learn to identify with all of humanity and not to have nuclear conflict. These are all new skills.
Jean: In terms of the known history of the human race, we are at the most critical nexus for survival or death of the species. And we are also at the threshold of a richer and more extended mode of being than the human race has ever known. We are living right now in that critical time phase. It’s probably a fifty-year period – maybe less.
Barbara: I sense that myself. What are the elements of that criticality, Jean, as you sense it?
Jean: Well, I think we’ve been talking about that criticality all day. We’ve been talking about the great disparity between the objectification of the world and the subjective factors that will allow us to orchestrate that objectification. And then there is the critical density of global interdependence – this is frightening! I cannot cough without there being repercussions at great distances; this is a metaphor, of course, but the point is true. We’ve never before had a globally interdependent society. We have never had societies in which the ecology of things has become so thick that there is no innocence anywhere. And that is probably the most frightening thing of all. I mean, what General Motors may do does make a difference. What I think does make a difference. We needn’t talk anymore about having to convince the higher-ups; the density is such that it has radically democratized the difference between higher-ups and lower-downs. What you do can make as much difference to the saving of a planet as anything anybody else can do – be it President Carter or MacGeorge Bundy, the head of the Ford Foundation. My old friend John Platt, who has done some writing on hierarchical structuring -
Hazel: Step function.
Jean: Step function, yes. As he points out, when you get to critical density, one little quantum change, and suddenly – the entire structure falls! The French Revolution: the work of centuries was overthrown in months!
In six thousand years of known history we have never known a situation like this. It’s probably more like seven thousand years. And it’s probably safe to say one hundred thousand years before that. We can no longer say: “Oh, nothing new under the sun; I’m just gonna sit like a bump on a log.” There is no way that we can do that! We are at the critical nexus of this historical time!
Hazel: I think we all sense that, and that’s what gives us the sense of urgency, and our different ways of expressing the energy overdrive. I think that this sense of urgency really is a survival thing – it has nothing to do with ego in the male sense.
Jean: Well, this is why the female principle is rising! It’s a reality arising in time. The male ego as structured in this time is not sufficient to be able to deal with these kinds of things!
Barbara: It’s a maternal urgency.
Jean: Yes! A maternal urgency and a great blowout in receptivity that you find in feminine function as it has been structured.
(Reprinted with permission from The Power of Yin)
The Power of Yin by evolutionary economist Hazel Henderson; Human Potential Movement founder Jean Houston; and social innovator Barbara Marx Hubbard, is an empowering invitation to help evolve the human community. Visit The Power of Yin.
Trihedron of Modern Episteme: Comte and Foucault
“Modern man is not the man who goes off to discover himself, his secrets, his hidden truth; he is the man who tries to invent himself. This modernity does not ‘liberate man in his own being’: It compels him to face the task of producing himself.”
Baudelaire
In this paper an attempt has been made to undertake Foucault’s criticism of the linear classification of branches of knowledge by Comte. The paper first begins with summarization of Foucault’s trihedron of the mathematical, empirical sciences and philosophy and then moves on to linear classification of Comte, with special reference to has positivism. In the final analysis the paper compares both the Comte and Foucault and the major criticism of Comte by Foucault, with reference to Foucault’s other major works.
Foucault’s projection of modern episteme:
Foucault account of the human sciences is centered on a polemical assertion that, man is an invention of recent date. And one perhaps is nearing its end’. Foucault says that man is simultaneously the subject and object of knowledge, as a transcendental doublet, is a construction of nineteenth century, with specific conditions of possibility. Man did not exist in the 17th and 18th century and his place in the structure was occupied by representation. Grammar, wealth and natural history had the representational structure. Foucault says,
…representation governs the mode of being of language, individuals, nature and need itself. The analysis of representation, therefore, has a determining value for all empirical domains. The whole classical system of order, the whole of great taxonomy that makes it possible to know things by means of system of their identities, is unfolded within this space that is opened up inside representation when represents itself, that area where being and the same reside. Language is simply the representation of beings; need is simply the representation of needs (1966:209).
The 19th century saw the knowledge of wealth, living beings and language freeing itself from representation. The knowledge in these areas no longer remained unified in taxonomic tables. Language, economic and living beings begun to be seen as an organic structure, consisting of function based. Biology no longer analyzed living beings through taxonomic tables based on surface structure, but explored the space between the superficial organs and the hidden ones, connecting both to the functions they perform. Similarly in the realm of philology purely grammar appears. The individuality of the language and its resemblance to other languages is determined by their means and interior grammatical mechanisms. Foucault says,
…language no longer consists only of representational and of sounds that in turn represent representations and are ordered among them as the links of through require; it consists of formal elements grouped into a system which imposes upon the sounds, syllables and roots an organisation which is not that of representation (1966: 235)
Foucault is not saying that the modern episteme eliminates representation as a function of thought, instead he says, representation still has crucial place in the modern conception of signs (as well as of language and of knowledge). His point in just that it is no more an unquestioned, self-justifying starting point; it is no longer simply accepted as a function identical to thought itself. The power of representation to connect must be instead be sought “outside representation, beyond its immediate visibility, in sort of behind-the –scenes world even deeper and more dense than representation.
Foucault sees Kant’s project of critique as a primary focus of this view of representation. Kant allows some forms of knowledge—those are empirical ones—are essentially representational. But he does not accept the classical assumption that all thought is by its very nature representational. His critique questions representation on the basis of its rightful limits. The entire system of representation which for the classical age is the necessary form of thought and reality as such appears, to Kant’s critical eye, as just a particular form of thought and reality needs to be grounded on the uncritical acceptance of representation are imply systems of dogmatic metaphysics. Kant works also open the questioning of all sources of representations, (Gutting: 1989: 243).
One of the single most important development in modern knowledge was the fragmentation of the field of knowing. For the classical age, knowing formed a homogeneous whole, with each domain (from mathematics to philosophy to empirical sciences) just a particular form of the general science of order. To know in any domain was to construct ordered tables and differences. Foucault says,
In the classical period, the field of knowledge from the project of analysis of representation to the theme of the mathesis universalis, were perfectly homogeneous: all knowledge, of whatever kind, proceeded to the ordering of its material by establishment of differences and defined those differences by establishing of an order; this was true of mathematics, true also for taxonomies (in the broad sense) and for the sciences of nature; but it was equally true for all those approximate, imperfect, and largely spontaneous kinds of knowledge which are brought into play in the construction of the latest fragment of discourse or in the daily processes of exchange; and it was true, finally for philosophical thought and for those long chains of order that the ideologues’, no less than Descartes or Spinoza, thought in different way, attempted to establish I order to create a path leading necessarily from the very simplest and most evident of ideas to the most composite truths. But from nineteenth century epistemological fields became fragmented, or rather exploded in different directions. It is difficult to escape the pre-eminence of linear classification and hierarchies in the manner of Comte; but to seek to align all the branches of modern knowledge on the basis of mathematics is to subject to the single point of view of objectivity in the knowledge the question of the positivity of each branch of knowledge….(1966: 346)
The epistemological field exploded in 19th century in different directions (346), and could no longer be understood as a linear series of inquiries employing the same basic method in different domains. The modern episteme is not ordered in accordance with the ideal of perfect mathematization, nor does it unfold, o the basis of a formal purity, a long, descending sequence of knowledge progressively more burdened with empiricity (1966:346). Rather their emerged three distinct dimensions of knowledge-
(1) Mathematical sciences, including pure mathematics and mathematic physics., which construct deductive systems, linking together evident or verified propositions
(2) Empirical sciences, such as biology, economics, and philology, ethic relate the discontinues but analogues elements of the experienced world so as to reveal causal relations and structural constraints between them.
(3) Philosophical reflection, which seeks a unified understanding of the grounds o knowledge and of the order of reality. That is common plane for linguistics biology and economics.
Foucault sees these divisions in the field of knowledge as due to the decline of representation. The splitting off of the philosophy as a methodologically distinct mode of enquiry is the direct result of the fact that representation is no longer the unquestionable form of thought and knowledge. The split between the mathematical and the empirical sciences as a consequence of a new distinction between analytic and synthetic knowledge, which itself flows from the questioning of representation.
Directly opposing linear progressive growth model of Comte, Foucault say that modern biology, economics and philology correspond to sharp breaks in the history of thought and are not merely extensions of previous ways of thinking-
The analysis of wealth in terms of labor move beyond the pure representational view of wealth by Adam Smith, but the major break with the classical episteme in the analysis of occurred only with Ricardo, who presented labor not only as the measure of value but also the sole source of value. Value had ceased to be a sign, it has become a project…value of things increases with the quantity of labour…but does not change with the increase or decrease of the wages for which labour, like all other commodities is exchanged (1966: 254). And with this conception of labor, new conception of man as an economic agent emerged, to which Foucault calls, homo oeconomics.
Foucault says, both Ricardo and Marx saw economic life as the linear history of finite man’s struggle to survive through his labor. Both see history as moving towards culminating point at which man will face the ultimate consequence of finitude. Ricardo sees this culmination point as a mere dead end that makes permanent the scarcity against which man has so long struggled, Marx on the other hand, sees it as the end of scarcity and the beginning of the new form of human existence. These two linear thought are two different ways of developing the basic picture of economic reality, are founded on the identical archaeological structure of modern economics.
Foucault lambasted Marxism and said that, at the deepest level Marxism in the western knowledge introduced no discontinuity it opposed to bourgeoisie economic views, but this opposition is just a mere surface effect. As Foucault says, Marxism introduced no real discontinuity; it found its place without difficulty, as a full, quite, comfortable and, goodness knows, satisfying from for a time (its own), within an epistemological arrangement that welcomed it gladly (since it was this arrangement that was in fact making room for it) and that it, in return, had no intention of distributing and, above all, no power to modify, even one jot, since it rested entirely upon it. Marxism existed in nineteenth century like a fish I water: that is, it is unable to breathe anywhere else… and further he says that the Marxist-bourgeoisie controversy was like…a few waves and caused a few surface ripples; but they are no more than storms in a children’s addling pool (1966:262).
Thus Foucault says that Marxism was not as revolutionary as it is believed to be and nor does it brought any major rupture and break with the classical episteme, but was a mere surface effect, which continued the linear progression of history.
The move to modern biology begins according to Foucault, with the introduction of notion of organic structure, by Lamark, but the decisive break came only with Cuvier, who was the first to give organic structure a role independent of taxonomic classification. For Cuvier, the structure of an organ is to be understood in terms of the functions that the organ performs. In this way Cuvier, arrive at the definition of living thing as a functional system, where life becomes a category that defines the object of biological inquiry, and modern biology becomes, in contrast to classical natural history, the science of life. Life was than tied to temporality and historicity, which according to Foucault provided the basis for the introduction of the idea of evolution by Darwin, which was foreign to the classical thought.
I case of philology, the major break and rupture that separate philology from general grammar come with Bopp, who recognized the verbal roots of the relationships of the languages.
Thus we see here in the modern episteme, that with the fragmentation of knowledge and decline of representation, language lost the central place it had in the classical episteme, and language became just one object of knowledge among others. Foucault says that the formalization and interpretation of language are rooted in the new status of language as a historical reality and object of our knowledge. The formalization and interpretation are not opposed to each other, but have a common origin and purpose; they have a common ground of phenomenology and structuralism in the modern episteme. In modern literature, according to Foucault, language returns to something like its status during the renaissance. Where as the renaissance language was ultimately controlled and limited by text of the worlds and given as ‘god’ creative word, the language of modern literature is totally ungrounded with “no point of departure, no end, no promise”. Thus we see here that language is tracing back its roots to classical episteme, thus we can assume that it is the interplay of both renaissance and modern episteme that forms the modern language.
We have already discussed the the three axis of modern knowledge—the mathematical, the philosophical and the empirical, but we have not yet encountered the human sciences. The human sciences, which are of ultimate concern to Foucault are excluded as because, as he says, From the epidemiological trihedron the human sciences are excluded at least in the sense that they cannot be found along any of its dimensions or on the surface of any of the planes thus defined. But one can equally say that they are included in it, since it is in the interstices of these branches of knowledge, or, more exactly, in the volume defined by their dimensions, that human sciences have their place (1966:347).
Foucault viewed modern philosophy, that is the philosophy from Kant onwards has dealt with the ‘man’ that is also the object of human sciences. Foucault says that man is the product of modern episteme, and before the end of eighteen century man did not exist (338) and that he will disappear wit the collapse of the modern episteme. The idea of man here represents for those whom representations exist. The appearance of man within the modern episteme means that the subject of representational knowledge becomes, as such an object of knowledge. Foucault recognizes the empirical sciences as the locus of knowledge, but further says that man cannot merely be an object of knowledge, but a subject that constitutes the world and all that is in it as objects. Foucault maintains that the study of man precisely as a constituting subject is the central concern of modern philosophical reflection and in other way of the modern human sciences.
Kant gave the distinction between man as a transcendental subject and constituting object of his experience, but Foucault says Kant failed to five adequate relationship between man a transcendental and empirical, which led the post- Kantian philosophers to reduce the transcendental to the empirical and led to the emergence of two different ways-
(1) Empirical biological knowledge of the human body as the basis of a positivistic rendition of transcendental aesthetic. The result was the discovery that knowledge has anatomo-physiological conditions, that it is formed gradually within the structure of the body. This was taken to show tat human knowledge has empirical nature that determined its character and, at the same time made it an object of knowledge.
(2) This approach was based on historical rather than biological knowledge about the human condition. This led to the Marxist version of a transcendental dialectic, showing that knowledge had historical, social or economic conditions in short that there was a history of human knowledge which could both be given to empirical knowledge and prescribes its form (1966: 319).
The positivist, that is the alternative of basing philosophical, and eschatological, basing empirical truth on philosophical truth becomes important to understand the human sciences. Positivist says that our philosophical discourse about knowledge is itself true in virtue of truths about empirical objects. The eschatological says that our scientific and historical accounts of empirical objects are true in virtue of the truth of our philosophical discourse about knowledge. Foucault says, Comte and Marx both bear out the fact that eschatology and positivism are archaeologically indissociable: a discoure attempting to be both empirical and critical cannot but be both positivist and eschatological; man appears within it as a truth both reduced and promised (1966:320). Thus it becomes clear that the efforts (both Comte, Marx) to carry out the reductionist project typically fluctuated between positivism and eschatology.
Foucault says that modern philosophy quest for man has come to dead end, the unquestioned acceptance of man as the ineluctable focus of the philosophy is a new form of dogmatic slumber. Foucault says, in modern thought, what is revealed at the foundation of the history of things and of the historicity proper to man is the distance creating vacuum within the same (1966:340).
The central concern of the human sciences is man. These sciences deal with man as a living, producing and speaking but not in the manner of the empirical sciences of biology, economics and philology. The human sciences like philosophy are concerned with man as a subject, as a knower whose representations constitute his world and are not just products of it. The human sciences are not an analysis of what man is by nature, they are rather an analysis that moves from man’s nature as living, producing and speaking being in contrast to biology, human science is concerned with human life. the human sciences treat man’s life, labor, and language in the stratum of conduct, behavior, attitudes, gestures already made, sentences which already pronounced or written…(1966: 354)
The division of human sciences into three epistemological regions, all subdivided within themselves, and interlocking with one another, each corresponding to one of the empirical sciences of biology, economics and philology.
Foucault develops his methodology of the human sciences in terms of this threefold divisions and holds that each of the three divisions of the human sciences employs a model taken from empirical science to which it particularly linked. Although Foucault holds that each of models has a primary role and significance in one particular human science, he recognizes that all the models operate in all the human science. Foucault says, all the human sciences interlock and can always be used to interpret one another; their frontiers became blurred, intermediary and composite disciplines multiply endlessly, and in the end their proper object may even disappear altogether(1966: 358)
The human sciences are original because they seek the man’s active role as a subject, which has come to be called as unconscious, and it is through these unconscious functions, conflicts, and meanings, the human sciences are able to develop an account of how man represents the fundamental realities of life, labor and language, which appear in the empirical sciences as determinants of man a an object (Gutting: 1989).
Achievement of the human sciences belongs to the domain of knowledge, not science, because the human science is form of knowledge, just as physics and biology, they have legitimate position defined in modern episteme. They do not posses the formal criteria of a scientific form of knowledge. Thus difference between human sciences and empirical sciences lies in formalization and testing (Gutting: 1989).
History constitutes a favorable environment which is both privileged and dangerous for human sciences. To each of the sciences of man it offers a background, which establishes it and provides it with a fixed ground and, as it were, a homeland; it determines the cultural area—the chronological and geographical boundaries—in which that branch of knowledge can be recognized as having validity; but it also surrounds the sciences of man with frontier that limits them and destroys, from the outset, their claim to validity within the elements of universality (1966:371).Foucault holds that history has a special role because the object of human sciences—man—is a historical being. Man treated by any human science will in fact be man only through a particular range of his history. The validity of universal knowledge (as positivism) can also be tested in any chronological era. We will discuss the universality of knowledge later.
Foucault in the last chapter of order of things, talks about the counter sciences like psychoanalysis and ethnology. Both the counter sciences instead of developing a general concept of man, they question the very concept of man itself. Just as Kant’s raising of the question of the condition of the possibility of representation led to the decline of representation, so the raising of similar question about man is the sign of disappearance of man, what Lévi-Strauss said of ethnology: had they dissolve man.
The modern episteme seems to be failing and giving way to structuralism and poststructuralism. Thus we have again returned to language, thinking perhaps that, since modern thought arose with the dispersion of language, whatever is to replace it will require a rebirth of its unity. Thus the man emerged in the modern episteme, and is bound to disappear with the fall of modern episteme.
Comte’s linear classification of the branches of modern knowledge
In the nineteenth century, Auguste Comte turned the Enlightenment idea of progress, into a three-stage/law linear evolutionary view toward positivism. He outlined three historical stages: (1) the theological (2) the metaphysical, (3) the positive. Comte’s three-stage evolutionary view was based on the belief that the positivistic pursuit of history, where the third stage to which he called positivism, would consist of observations leading to general laws governing human activity. Let us now discuss briefly some of the important components of the linear classification.
Let us first briefly look at the Three Stages linear progress of human civilization. In 1822, in his first sketch of the Positive Philosophy, he argued that “because of the very nature of the human mind” all human knowledge passes through “the theological or fictive stage; the metaphysical or abstract stage; and finally the scientific or positive stage.” In the theological stage “ideas of the supernatural” operate as explanatory concepts, and “the observed facts are explailzed, that is, are looked at a priori, in terms of invented facts. The metaphysical stage is an intermediate style of thinking which operates “in terms of ideas which are no longer altogether supernatural and are not yet altogether natural. Briefly, these ideas are personified abstractions in which the mind can decide to see, either the mystical name of some supernatural cause or the abstract statement of a simple series of phenomena, according as it is nearer to the theological or to the scientific stage. (Action: 1958)
Theological stage is reflected in such notions as the divine right of kings. The metaphysical stage involves such concepts as the social contract, the equality of persons, and popular sovereignty. The positivist stage entails a scientific or “sociological” (a term coined by Comte) approach to political organization. Quite critical of democratic procedures, Comte envisioned a stable society governed by scientific elite who would use the methods of science to solve human problems and improve social conditions.
Corresponding to the theological stage of human thought was the predatory-military stage of social organization, corresponding to the positive stage of thought is the positive industrial stage of social organization, while between the two is a stage of non-predatory or defensive military organization within which metaphysical ideas develop. There was also a corresponding development of the feelings, showing itself in the moral outlook of mankind. In the theologico-military society men’s feelings are organized about their conception of a supernatural world with its rewards and punishments after death. In the intermediate revolutionary society, men’s feelings are organized about their worldly self-interest, so that liberalism is held to be at the same time a metaphysical and a selfish outlook. At the positive stage of human development the agreement in opinion to which scientific method leads will, Comte predicts, combine with the sociologist’s awareness of the dependence of each individual upon the whole of society to produce a regime with “love for its principle, order for its basis, and progress for its end.”‘ The morality of industrial-positive society will tend to be one of universal love. (Action: 1958).
Comte’s classification claims to represent the order from simple to complex, and from general to special, and the order of mental growth is the first as stated, and the second reversed. We should expect that the order of individual mental progress would fairly represent the order of the progress of the race in the sciences, but this is plainly not the case. Mathematics, for instance, the earliest of the sciences in developing, dealt with the simplest but with the most general and abstract of notions. Its rapid progress was due in great measure to progress according to the law of least mental resistance. It was easier for the mind to work out an ideal world of form, than to patiently make inductions among the complexities and perplexities of the actual world of things. All he means is that we are justified in regarding as knowledge of the world only what can stand the test of observation and experiment. Comte believed that natural science methods like observation, experiment, verification etc can be used to study and solve human problems.
Comte then proceeds to use the three-state law of scientific progress as a basis from which to argue for the existence of laws of progress governing other aspects of society. First, he appeals to the fact that changes in one aspect of society will bring about changes in other aspects in an attempt to establish the existence of laws of social static’s, the science of social equilibrium. Comte further says that in addition there must be laws of social dynamics which describe the development of aspects of society other than its scientific development. These other aspects of society must progress in order to keep pace with scientific developments, so as to avoid the entire decomposition of the system.
Comte believed that the aim of the positivist method is to find facts and truths, which is the ultimate aim of science. Comte believed that the progressive positive science will lead to betterment of society is doubtful, because the scientific advancement has produced colonized and what Foucault calls, disciplinary societies. Comte’s believed that scientific knowledge of social science will lead governments to recognize that there are definite limits to what they can hope to force or persuade their subjects to do, but it was Foucault who provided the knowledge-power nexus which Comte did not talked of. The application of the positive method had already resulted in greed and authoritative sciences of nature, and was leading to the construction of an agreed and equally authoritative science of society. Although, Comte rejected belief in a transcendent being, he recognized the value of religion in contributing to social stability. In System of Positive Polity he proposed his religion of humanity, aimed at encouraging socially beneficial behaviour.
Comte believes that because human nature is everywhere one and the same, society will always develop in accordance with the same laws. These laws can be discovered through a study of the most advanced human societies. Local factors such as race and climate cannot change the nature of this development. They merely affect the rate at which the society in question passes from one state to the next in the social series. For this reason, Comte believes non-Western societies merely to represent earlier states of social development through which Western Europe has already passed.
Thus, Comte believed in an evolutionary and liner stage of growth theory of human progress based on the laws of scientific positivism, where the laws of evolution can be generalised universally because of similar human nature. And the ultimate aim of the positivism was to find the truth, a universal truth governing society. Comte positivism was like the stages of growth theories propounded later on by psychologists, where human being evolves, same as the child grows-up to adult. Comtean positivism was later on taken up by Durkheim, who proposed evolutionary positivist ideas like mechanical and organic solidarity, and to some extent also Marx (historical and revolutionary evolution) in case of dialectical materialism.
The major points of contradiction between Comte and Foucault
As we have already discussed the both Comtean stages and Foucaudian episteme, and now let us move towards Foucault’s criticisms of linear stages of knowledge proposed by Comte. I have already slightly touched the main criticisms of Foucault; I will now try to discuss them briefly.
The first point of contradiction between Comte and Foucault is about, the linear classification of branches of knowledge. Comte proposed three stages of progress of knowledge and, said that the knowledge passed through theological to meta-physical and finally to scientific, to which he called positivism. Comte said that each stage of knowledge forms a hierarchy, where the progressive scientific or positivism occupies the highest place. Comte believed that the higher the hierarchy of knowledge, the more rationalistic and progressive it is. As Canguilheim puts, Progress means the rejection of the human race’s childishness and prejudices, and a recognition of its errors (1988:315).
The positive stage, according to Comte, “is the final mode to be assumed by any science; the two first being destined only to prepare the way gradually for it. In this stage facts are linked in terms of ideas or general laws of an entirely positive order suggested or confirmed by the facts themselves. The attempt is constantly made to reduce them to as small a number as possible, but without introducing any hypothesis which could not some day be verified by observation, and without regarding them as anything but a means of expressing phenomena in general terms.” the Law of the Three Stages is, in the first place, a formulation of a theory of knowledge. In this aspect, examination of it is a matter for philosophy. In the second place, it is used by Comte to interpret the history of science and of Western society. In this respect it is an alleged sociological law. (Action: 1958).
Comte refers to positive science as “the continuous work of the whole of humanity, without any special inventor,” and says that “quite apart from its point of departure, the public reason ought to establish the general aim of positive speculations, always ultimately directed towards predictions relating to universal needs.” The prime reason why the theological and metaphysical modes of thought are rejected is that they do not link with good sense and practice in the way that the positive mode does (Action: 1958).
Comte also pointed out that only verifiable and testable statements are meaningful. He regarded that any proposition which is not strictly reducible to simple enunciation of the fact—either particuar or general—can have no real or intelligible meaning for us… comte used the verifiability as a stick with which to beat the metaphysicians. This was particularly important for Comte, in the lit of his three stages of intellectual development. All of the sciences have themselves gone through periods of domination and by’ l’ espirit metaphysique’, (1971:39).
Foucault criticism of Comte is that, the knowledge cannot be arranged in linear progressive and hierarchical way; rather it has to be understood in its own episteme. That is knowledge has to be understood in its own time, context and its importance or place in the said period, and we cannot simply say that renaissance knowledge was savage. Instead of looking at classification of knowledge in linear terms Foucault has tried to understand it in terms of epistemological break and rupture, and says that it is the task of historian to understand knowledge in terms of homogeneity and continuity. Thus, Canguilheim rightly said that living in the twentieth century, we can understand why the nineteenth century took a critical view of the eighteen, even though it thought it was following I its footsteps (1998:322). Levy Strauss argues that it is unacceptable to discredit cold societies on the ground that their means of production are archaic… (1998:224).
Foucault says that, the intrinsic “impurity” of what we call “reasonn-its embeddedness” in culture and society, its entanglement with power and interest, the historical variability of its categories and criteria, the embodied, sensuous, and practically engaged character of its bearers(McCarthy:1990). Foucault reject the Comtean picture of an autonomous rational subject set over against a world of objects which it seeks to represent and, through representing, to master. Foucault thinks reason, in its cognitive employment as well, is embedded in socio-cultural milieu.
Comte uses his positive ideas of science to human sciences like sociology and claims that it is the science of society. He says, that like empirical sciences sociology can be quantified and mathematized. But Foucault says that to seek to align modern knowledge on the basis of mathematics is to subject to the single point of view of objectivity in the knowledge the question of the positivity of each branch of knowledge. Foucault says that both empirical and human sciences have the common root and ground and traces its connection in pre-enlightenment era.
Comte like other natural scientists proposed that the ultimate aim of positivism is to seek ultimate truth and fact, which is a universal. The idea was more popularised by Durkheim in his Rules of Sociological Method where he discusses the right method of sociological research based on ultimate facts. Foucault main question is that, can there be any single universal truth? Foucault thinks the answer to be ‘no’, because truth is episteme bound, and what was true for one episteme may not be true for other. Foucault thinks that, like other practices, epistemic practices too have to be comprehended in their socio-cultural contexts. Thus it is in this sense; Foucault believes that the theory of knowledge is part of the theory of society, which is itself embedded in practical contexts, and in rather distinctive ways.
Furthermore, Foucault is critical of the role that the social sciences and social scientifically trained “experts” have played in the process of “rationalization.” Foucault saw the rationality that came to prevail in modern society as an instrumental potential for extending our mastery over the physical and social worlds, a rationality of technique and calculation, of regulation and administration, in search of ever more effective forms of domination. Inasmuch as the human sciences have assisted mightily in forging and maintaining the bars of this “iron cage,” to use Max Weber’s phrase, they are a prime target for genealogical and dialectical critique.(McCarthy:1990).
Since the Enlightenment, a history and idea of reasonhas always surfaced, and that is why Foucault says, “I think that the central issue of philosophy and critical thought since the eighteenth century has always been, still is, and will, I hope, remain the question: What is this Reason that we use? What are its historical effects?” Of course, in our own day, we have to add: “What are its limits and what are its dangers? How can we exist as rational beings, fortunately committed to practicing a rationality that is unfortunately crisscrossed by intrinsic danger(McCarthy:1990) Foucault that the answer to this questions are in genealogical histories, which stress the local and contingent aspects of prevailing forms of rationality rather than their universality.
Each society, as Foucault puts it, “has its regime of truth,”‘ and genealogy is interested precisely in how we govern ourselves and others through its production. Focusing especially on the human sciences- the sciences of which “man” is the object -he examines the myriad ways in which power relations are both conditions and effects of the production of truth about human beings. In areas of inquiry ranging from psychiatry and medicine to penology and population studies, he uncovers the feedback relations that obtain between the power exercised over people to extract data from and about them (McCarthy: 1990).What separates this way from a universally oriented “analytic of truth” is an institutionalisation and rationalisation of knowledge such as psychiatry, criminology etc. thus Foucault basically points towards the knowledge-power nexus in the modern episteme.
Along with Foucault other thinkers who are equally or even more critical of the rational and progressive knowledge of Comte are as follows- Freud, Nietzsche, Canguilheim, Levi- Strauss etc.
Freud, we are living in a especially remarkable period. We find astonishment that progress has allied itself with barbarism. Nietzsche said, progress is merely a modern idea, that is to say a false idea (1998:326).Canguilheim says, It is however possible to reject evolutionism and the linear conception of progress without, hopefully, succumbing to the temptations of a retrograde naivety. We can that is, compare the history of different societies, or different states of the same society, I various ways and in accordance with several criteria. According to Levi-Strauss, so called primitive societies do not represent sates that have been transcended by the progress made by so-called civilized societies; they represent different solutions to analogous problems, and their value cannot be gauged by standards imported from outside (1998:324). Thus Levi Strauss has challenged the paradox of progressive ideology of civilized man, by pointing at the very moment when it was bringing destruction in the name of progress.
In conclusion it can be said that the linear and progressive classification of modern knowledge by Comte is being rightfully rejected by Foucault and also by other like Canguilheim, because society cannot be only understood in terms of quantification and rationalism does not always moves towards a higher stage of human conversation, instead it can be said in the words of Canguilheim that, the dark side of enlightenment rationalism was the 15 hour working day for childrens.
Bibliography
(1) Foucault, M (1966) The Order of Things: an archaeology of human sciences. London. Tavistock Publications.
(2) Gutting, G (1989) Michael Foucault’s Archaeology of Scientific Reason. Cambridge/New York. Cambridge University press.
Articles
(1) Canguilheim, H (1998) The Decline of the idea of progress’, Economy and Society (27, 2&3) pp 313-329.
(2) Ludden, L (1971) Towards a reassessment of Comte’s Methode Positive’, Philosophy of Science, vol. 38, NO. 1. pp 35-53.
(3) McCarthy, T (1990) The Critique of Impure Reason: Foucault and the Frankfurt School’, Political Theory, Vol. 18, No. 3. pp. 437-469
(4) Acton, H.B (1951) Comte’s Positivism and the Science of Society’, Philosophy, Vol. 26, No. 99. pp. 291-310.
research scholar in deparetment of sociology, delhi university.
Attacks Against Indian Culture & the Role of Media in it
I am writing this after going through all the facts about what has recently happened around us and particularly the role of media in it. I will start with the flood of allegations against Sant Sri Asaramji Bapu. If we look at the whole episode with a little common sense than the whole matter will be crystal clear in from of us. I am feeling sorry for our so called intelligent media as how can they miss on these flaws. Or on the other hand, are they intentionally not showing the other side of the coin? If yes, then who is the one holding there hands for not showing the truth?
Let us start incident by incident with the first one that was happened in Ahmedabad. Two innocent gurukul children were found dead near Sabarmati River on 16/07/2008. Now as this issue is under investigation, therefore, I will not say much about it. Though there are some common things which even a blind man can see. However, our innocent public, who can believe whatever is shown to them buy our media, could not see/understand the conspiracy done behind it.
Ahemdabad Incident
Everyone knows that 18/07/2008 was an auspicious Guru Poonam day and on this day millions of Bapu followers come to Ahmedabad Ashram every year to take the blessings from their Guru. The program for this year was the same. Now if you just go a little deep into the incident that was occurred then you will find that something is fishy in it.
Point No. 1. – The kids were found missing on 03/07/2008 and a search was made for them but no one could find them. As per some other gurukul kids they were promised by someone that in the evening they will come and take them to show “Rath Yatra” in a car.
Now the question arises is that who were they who promised them for a free ride? Why only to gurukul kids and that too in a hidden way? This shows that a plot was made and somebody came there to execute it on that day. Hence, there is a possibility that someone came on that day and took the kids away from a particular location.
Point No. 2 – Now kids were found missing on 03/07/2008, however, no clue was found and suddenly on 16/07/2008 somebody found them dead near Sabarmati River. Then on 17/07/2008 there was no reaction from people and on 18/07/2008, right on Guru Poonam when millions of followers were scheduled to come to ashram, Ahmedabad band was announced when Vaghela family (Parents of deceased children) was not even in favor of it.
This shows another chapter of the same story that was started on 03/07/2008. As per the plan, bodies of the departed souls were kept near Sabarmati River and an announcement was made. A plan was already ready, therefore, on 18/07/2008 they showed their anger and Ahmedabad band was called. The question arises is that why was nothing happened in between from 03/07/2008 till 16/07/2008? Was somebody waiting for some particular day? There is again a chance of high possibility that this was done to disrupt the Guru Poonam celebrations at Ashram.
Point No. 3 – On 18/07/2008, different groups of anti social elements were scattered all over Ahmedabad and destroyed public property and harassed people that were going towards Ashram. They were beaten up and were stopped on the way towards ashram. People who were waiting in the queue for Bapu’s darshan were also harassed and many incidents of chain snatching were happened over there. Few people who were part of this mob entered into the Ashram (wearing white kurta-pajamas, claiming to be Bapu’s follower) and destroyed the vehicles which were in the parking of Ashram. Now why would sadhaks (Bapu followers) who were present inside the Ashram destroy their own vehicles? Why would sadhaks attack on other sadhaks who are coming to ashram?
When some of these anti social elements were held by Ashram people then they admitted that they have been hired by giving Rs.200 to do these activities in the bandh. As per some other sources, none of these were from Ahmedabad. Everyone in Ahmedabad very well knows Bapu and could not do this heinous act against him. As per an unofficial statement, 2 trucks full of these people were brought from Vadodara to disrupt activities in Ahmedabad Ashram. Hence, there is a possibility that other such people were also hired and brought down to Ahmedabad in trucks from different regions just to do this act.
From all the above points what I can infer is that a well planned high level conspiracy was done against Bapu and media just showed one aspect of it and that too in a way that the image of Saint gets diminished, who is a source of inspiration for millions of people around the world. This also raises questions against the media. Are they also been funded by some agencies to show only one part of the story and that too in a negative way?
Chindwara Incident
After Ahmedabad, the next target was Chindwara. Here, on 29/07/2008 and 31/07/2008 again two innocent gurukul children were killed and found dead in the bathroom of gurukul. Thankfully, local police solved this case and found another gurukul student “Rituraj” accountable for this crime with proper evidence. Media just showed this much and raised questions against Chindwara Ashram authorities and accused them of not taking care of children. This was done when parents of both the deceased children gave a clean chit to the Ashram and even they stated that some conspiracy has been done against ashram.
Now come to the other part of the story. These respectful investigative media persons did not even try to do a background check of Rituraj. Nobody tried to enquire whether or not there is a criminal case pending against his father? Whether or not there is a criminal history of his uncle? What is their financial background? How come within a month this family managed to get a brand new Qualis when the financial condition of the family is not too good? How come their lifestyle improved? Where did they suddenly get so much money from? Why after the death of Ramkrishan on 29/07/2008 this guy told Ramkrishan’s uncle to also take his child out of the gurukul otherwise the same thing can happen to his child? Just to add up, this guy was admitted to gurukul, just few days back on 10/07/2008. As a result, just like Ahmedabad Chindwara bandh was also called and mob attacked ashram people and destroyed ashram property.
Again the question arises, was this also a well planned incident? Who are financially assisting these people to do these acts? Our media, again showed only one side of the coin and did not even try to find out the truth behind it. Are they also likely to be involved? Is there a big nexus that is working against Bapu and Hindu Saints?
Physical assault
In a row of incidents that were happening, all of a sudden from nowhere a lady came into picture and started accusing Bapu for physical assault. The interview of this lady was shown live on one of the News channel. Now would you call it an irresponsible behavior of media or an intentional attempt of them to show this without even researching about the facts? The lady claimed that the incident was happened with her at Rewari in 2001. Just to let you know that Bapu is a famous personality and wherever he does satsang the whole world knows about it. It gets published on Ashram’s monthly magazine “Rishi Prasad” and along with that the dates of satsang are shown on several satellite TV channels. Hence, every day of Bapu or every famous person for that matter, gets registered. If they would have researched the truth about the dates she has claimed then they could have easily found out that Bapu was not in Rewari in the year 2001. Secondly, why after so many years this lady suddenly came into picture and started accusing Bapu? If this thing was happened to her then where was she during these many years? Why didn’t she report this to police?
Now the question that arises over here is, was this thing made up? Was the lady hired by someone? Was the news channel intentionally showed the live interview without any research? Was it planned to highlight this kind of thing after the Ahmedabad and Chindwara incidents to diminish the image of Saint?
Other Issues
There are many other incidents that happened side by side like blaming Bapu’s son Narayan Sai, Ashram’s land issue, raid at godhra pharmacy, questions against neem tel when it has already got approval from the government stating that no poisonous substance has been detected in it.
Indian Saints or Indian Culture?
Now, the big question is why all these things are happening against Bapu? Here, I would like to mention that this has happened almost with every popular Saint in India. Remember the allegations against Sathya Sai Baba, then against Shankracharya Jayant Saraswati, and most recently Swami Ramdev? Hence, it is not a particular Saint that is on the target but it is our rich Indian Culture which on its own is growing rapidly and the whole world very well the potential of it. However, some people do not like if we are growing with that pace. They know that Dharma is the only thing that is uniting all Indians and the major reason behind our growth.
The answer of this is again an assumption, however, has a very high possibility of being true. Also, it is a very broad picture that comes into our mind and need a genuine consideration with a clear and focused mind. Everyone knows that Bapu is a well known saint in India and has millions of followers all over the world. One fact is that as they are followers of Bapu, therefore, they are united, practice religion and make sure that Indian culture never die. You would agree that every saint who has some followers are definitely united and practice religion. Many of these people are also responsible for the growth of India and because of them India is set to become a super power. Even Bapu’s dream is also to see India at a position of “Vishwa Guru” by 2011. The possibilities of involvement of these people in any criminal activities or bad deeds are close to zero. The reason behind is there inclination towards spirituality. Clearly, these things are not at all liked by the anti social elements.
We know that world is facing grave danger today. With sharp fall in social, cultural and human values, mutual distrust and jealousy are increasing in the society, taking human beings far away from good values. Instead of providing security, cases of women being raped and murdered in the order of the day are becoming very common. In such a depressive scenario, spiritualism is the only way left to get rid of this situation. The teachings of saints and seers who have studied the human nature and intricacies of the life are useful and relevant. Our scriptures explain in detail such ideals, which are based on our culture, religion and philosophy. Hence, our Saints show people the right way of life and increase the capabilities of individuals. This is strengthening our culture, however, anti social elements want to destroy the roots of Indian culture completely.
Therefore, if one diminishes an image of a Saint then definitely it will have an impact on his followers and there belief in that Saint gets shattered. In turn, they will get divided and may follow a wrong direction. These people get vulnerable and can get easily molded. Hence, the anti social elements will become successful in destroying our culture. Because Bapu has millions of followers, therefore, if they succeed in their attempt then they can divide millions of people. Hence, by attacking popular saints one can easily divide the unity between there followers and in turn can break India and Indian culture. They want to take Dharma out of this country and want to weaken this country. Wise, sensible and intellectual people know that this country cannot survive without Dharma. Dharma is the only thing that is uniting us and guiding us in many ways and showing us different ways to become successful. Now the people/group/agency that wants to break the integrity of India and wants India not to flourish and follow the western way, has a soft target in front of them to do so and that is to attack Indian Saints. They know that because of them most Indians are united and are following religion and doing good things in life and being a part of India’s success. But they can’t see India and Indian culture growing and want us to lack behind in everything. They want us to consume coke, pepsi and these kinds of things so that it weakens our health and in turn we can’t grow physically and mentally. That is the reason when Swami Ramdev openly condemned the use of soft drinks then he was attacked as per the plan. Major reason was because after the popularity of Swami Ramdev, the sales of these companies were dropped very heavily. Just for your knowledge, the quantities of contents that are included in these soft drinks in India are much different from what it is in US.
Hence, it is a very broad issue and it needs to be investigated religiously and one should go into the depth of it. The attack is not only against our Saints but also against our culture which is the strongest in the world.
Role of media
The role of media is also very suspicious in these matters, which again raises many doubts in our mind. If you recollect, when the allegations against Shankracharya were made then it was the breaking news for almost all the channels and they focused on this issue for about a week. They completely tried to diminish the image of Shankracharya claiming that he has an affair with a women and charges of sexual assault. At that time people said that he cannot even get a bail and will get life sentence. However, when court case was filed against him and he came out of the court with a clean chit then no one showed anything about it. No one then put this news as breaking news. The only question is. Why?
Same happened when nothing was found in Swami Ramdev’s medicines. The issue was hyped as if he has done some murder and again it was breaking news. However, later when nothing was found then news channels also showed nothing on it. In the same way, media never showcased the good things that are being done by Bapu’s various ashrams in all over India. Free clothes, food, money that get distributed by Ashram on regular basis to poor people living in tribes all over India has never telecasted by media. The 100% result of the gurukuls has never been reported by media. They just know how to diminish the image of our Saints and that too without any evidences and without knowing the facts.
Media or Trial courts
Media has nowadays become so irresponsible that they are showing whatever they want to. As per the law, media has to show the version of the person against whom they are showing/writing in their respective channels/newspapers. However, they hardly do this. They even take the version of that person just to comply with the law, however, will show that in such a way that it does not impact their made up story. It seems that media is now our country’s new judicial arm. Without knowing the facts they start their trial on the person and make him/her an accused of a crime. Hence, create a wrong picture of that person in our mind.
Even our supreme court Chief Justice Mr. K.G. Balakrishnan has himself mentioned in one of his programs that “media trial” of pending cases is a wrong practice. The tendency of newspapers and news channels to carry unverified reports posed a danger to a free and fair constitutional judicial process. The manner in which “the modern media and telecommunications” intruded into a person’s life and caused embarrassing and damaging publicity, if left unchecked, would become “alarming.” The media trial, conveying public opinion in favour of one side or the other, particularly in criminal matters, had become increasingly frequent in recent times. Even before the court trial began, the accused was being shown as guilty.
This questioned the very premise on which the judicial system was based — the right of every party involved in a court proceeding to have his case adjudicated in a free, fair and unbiased manner.
Justice Balakrishnan said the media were a sentinel of democratic freedom. It was the responsibility of every person associated with the media to act responsibly with a sense of duty towards society and the nation. In fact, journalists were “vigilant watchdogs of civil liberties.” The right of the media to report court proceedings emanated from the right of the citizen to know. The media also had the duty to report fairly, objectively and accurately. He said the media should be wary of allowing itself to become a vehicle for exerting “mass pressure” as opposed to a “mere expression of mass opinion.”
Food for thought
What I strongly believe is that nothing will come out in all the made up cases against Bapu in the end. Media is hyping this issue to increase their channels TRP and may be for some other reason and once the issue gets resolved they will hardly show anything. Their only motive is to show what they want to show and diminish the image of Saints. Are they doing it under somebody else’s guidance? Is there a nexus of these people? These questions are for us to think about and let us pray that an unbiased investigation gets done in this case and the real picture comes out in front of us. I hope that this whole episode will turn in a blessing for all of us and results in a more powerful and strong Indian culture. At the end, we should also not forget Newton’s law that to every action there is always opposed an equal reaction.
Freedom of Speech and Expression
FREEDOM OF SPEECH AND EXPRESSION
By: Suneera Nerissa Madhok
INTRODUCTION
Speech is God’s gift to mankind. Through speech a human being conveys his thoughts, sentiments and feeling to others. Freedom of speech and expression is thus a natural right, which a human being acquires on birth. It is, therefore, a basic right. “Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; the right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek and receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers” proclaims the Universal Declaration Of Human Rights (1948). The people of India declared in the Preamble of the Constitution, which they gave unto themselves their resolve to secure to all the citizens liberty of thought and expression. This resolve is reflected in Article 19(1)(a) which is one of the Articles found in Part III of the Constitution, which enumerates the Fundamental Rights.
Man as rational being desires to do many things, but in a civil society his desires have to be controlled, regulated and reconciled with the exercise of similar desires by other individuals. The guarantee of each of the above right is, therefore, restricted by the Constitution in the larger interest of the community. The right to freedom of speech and expression is subject to limitations imposed under Article 19(2).
Public order as a ground of imposing restrictions was added by the Constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951. Public order is something more than ordinary maintenance of law and order. Public order in the present context is synonymous with public peace, safety and tranquility.
MEANING AND SCOPE
Article 19(1)(a) of Indian Constitution says that all citizens have the right to freedom of speech and expression. Freedom of Speech and expression means the right to express one’s own convictions and opinions freely by words of mouth, writing, printing, pictures or any other mode. It thus includes the expression of one’s idea through any communicable medium or visible representation, such as gesture, signs, and the like. This expression connotes also publication and thus the freedom of press is included in this category. Free propagation of ideas is the necessary objective and this may be done on the platform or through the press. This propagation of ideas is secured by freedom of circulation. Liberty of circulation is essential to that freedom as the liberty of publication. Indeed, without circulation the publication would be of little value. The freedom of speech and expression includes liberty to propagate not one’s views only. It also includes the right to propagate or publish the views of other people; otherwise this freedom would not include the freedom of press.
Freedom of expression has four broad special purposes to serve:
1) It helps an individual to attain self-fulfillment.
2) It assists in the discovery of truth.
3) It strengthens the capacity of an individual in participating in decision-making.
4) It provides a mechanism by which it would be possible to establish a reasonable balance between stability and social change.
5) All members of society would be able to form their own beliefs and communicate them freely to others.
In sum, the fundamental principle involved here is the people’s right to know. Freedom of speech and expression should, therefore, receive generous support from all those who believe in the participation of people in the administration. It is on account of this special interest which society has in the freedom of speech and expression that the approach of the Government should be more cautious while levying taxes on matters of concerning newspaper industry than while levying taxes on other matters.
Explaining the scope of freedom of speech and expression Supreme Court has said that the words “freedom of speech and expression” must be broadly constructed to include the freedom to circulate one’s views by words of mouth or in writing or through audiovisual instrumentalities. It therefore includes the right to propagate one’s views through the print media or through any other communication channel e.g. the radio and the television. Every citizen of this country therefore has the right to air his or their views through the printing and or the electronic media subject of course to permissible restrictions imposed under Article 19(2) of the Constitution.
Freedom to air one’s view is the lifeline of any democratic institution and any attempt to stifle, suffocate or gag this right would sound a death knell to democracy and would help usher in autocracy or dictatorship. The modern communication mediums advance public interest by informing the public of the events and development that have taken place and thereby educating the voters, a role considered significant for the vibrant functioning of a democracy. Therefore, in any setup more so in a democratic setup like ours, dissemination of news and views for popular consumption is a must and any attempt to deny the same must be frowned upon unless it falls within the mischief of Article 19(2) of the Constitution.
The various communication channels are great purveyors of news and views and make considerable impact on the minds of readers and viewers and our known to mould public opinion on vitals issues of national importance. The freedom of speech and expression includes freedom of circulation and propagation of ideas and therefore the right extends to the citizen to use the media to answer the criticism leveled against the views propagated by him. Every free citizen has undoubted right to lay what sentiments he pleases. This freedom must, however, be exercised with circumspection and care must be taken not to trench on the rights of other citizens or to jeopardise public interest.
NEW DIMENSIONS OF FREEDOM OF SPEECH AND EXPRESSION
Government has no monopoly on electronic media: The Supreme Court widened the scope and extent of the right to freedom of speech and expression and held that the government has no monopoly on electronic media and a citizen has under Art. 19(1)(a) a right to telecast and broadcast to the viewers/listeners through electronic media television and radio any important event. The government can impose restrictions on such a right only on grounds specified in clause (2) of Art. 19 and not on any other ground. A citizen has fundamental right to use the best means of imparting and receiving communication and as such have an access to telecasting for the purpose.
Commercial Advertisements: The court held that commercial speech (advertisement) is a part of the freedom of speech and expression. The court however made it clear that the government could regulate the commercial advertisements, which are deceptive, unfair, misleading and untruthful. Examined from another angle the Court said that the public at large has a right to receive the “Commercial Speech”. Art. 19(1)(a) of the constitution not only guaranteed freedom of speech and expression, it also protects the right of an individual to listen, read, and receive the said speech.
Telephone Tapping: Invasion on right to privacy : Telephone tapping violates Art. 19(1)(a) unless it comes within grounds of restriction under Art. 19(2). Under the guidelines laid down by the Court, the Home Secretary of the center and state governments can only issue an order for telephone tapping. The order is subject to review by a higher power review committee and the period for telephone tapping cannot exceed two months unless approved by the review authority.
FREEDOM OF PRESS
The fundamental right of the freedom of press implicit in the right the freedom of speech and expression, is essential for the political liberty and proper functioning of democracy. The Indian Press Commission says that “Democracy can thrive not only under the vigilant eye of legislature, but also under the care and guidance of public opinion and the press is par excellence, the vehicle through which opinion can become articulate.” Unlike the American Constitution, Art. 19(1)(a) of the Indian Constitution does not expressly mention the liberty of the press but it has been held that liberty of the press is included in the freedom of speech and expression. The editor of a press for the manager is merely exercising the right of the expression, and therefore, no special mention is necessary of the freedom of the press. Freedom of press is the heart of social and political intercourse. It is the primary duty of the courts to uphold the freedom of press and invalidate all laws or administrative actions, which interfere with it contrary to the constitutional mandate.
RIGHT TO INFORMATION
The right to know, ‘receive and impart information has been recognized within the right to freedom of speech and expression. A citizen has a fundamental right to use the best means of imparting and receiving information and as such to have an access to telecasting for the purpose. The right to know has, however, not yet extended to the extent of invalidating Section 5 of the Official Secrets Act, 1923 which prohibits disclosure of certain official documents. One can conclude that ‘right to information is nothing but one small limb of right of speech and expression.
GROUNDS OF RESTRICTIONS
Clause (2) of Article 19 contains the grounds on which restrictions on the freedom of speech and expression can be imposed :-
1) Security of State: Under Article 19(2) reasonable restrictions can be imposed on fredom of speech and expression in the interest of security of State. The term “security of state” refers only to serious and aggravated forms of public order e.g. rebellion, waging war against the State, insurrection and not ordinary breaches of public order and public safety, e.g. unlawful assembly, riot, affray. Thus speeches or expression on the part of an individual, which incite to or encourage the commission of violent crimes, such as, murder are matters, which would undermine the security of State.
2) Friendly relations with foreign states: This ground was added by the constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951. The object behind the provision is to prohibit unrestrained malicious propaganda against a foreign friendly state, which may jeopardise the maintainance of good relations between India, and that state. No similar provision is present in any other Constitution of the world. In India, the Foreign Relations Act, (XII of 1932) provides punishment for libel by Indian citizens against foreign dignitaries. Interest of friendly relations with foreign States, would not justify the suppression of fair criticism of foreign policy of the Government.
It is to be noted that member of the commonwealth including Pakistan is not a “foreign state” for the purposes of this Constitution. The result is that freedom of speech and expression cannot be restricted on the ground that the matter is adverse to Pakistan.
3) Public Order: This ground was added by the Constitution (First Amendment) Act. ‘Public order’ is an expression of wide connotation and signifies “that state of tranquility which prevails among the members of political society as a result of internal regulations enforced by the Government which they have established.”
Public order is something more than ordinary maintenance of law and order. ‘Public order’ is synonymous with public peace, safety and tranquility. The test for determining whether an act affects law and order or public order is to see whether the act leads to the disturbances of the current of life of the community so as to amount to a disturbance of the public order or whether it affects merely an individual being the tranquility of the society undisturbed.
Anything that disturbs public tranquility or public peace disturbs public order. Thus communal disturbances and strikes promoted with the sole object of acausing unrest among workmen are offences against public order. Public order thus implies absence of violence and an orderly state of affairs in which citizens can peacefully pursue their normal avocation of life. Public order also includes public safety. Thus creating internal disorder or rebellion would affect public order and public safety. But mere criticism of government does not necessarily disturb public order. In its external aspect ‘public safety’ means protection of the country from foreign aggression. Under public order the State would be entitled to prevent propaganda for a state of war with India.
The words ‘in the interest of public order’ includes not only such utterances as are directly intended to lead to disorder but also those that have the tendency to lead to disorder. Thus a law punishing utterances made with the deliberate intention to hurt the religious feelings of any class of persons is valid because it imposes a restriction on the right of free speech in the interest of public order since such speech or writing has the tendency to create public disorder even if in some case those activities may not actually lead to a breach of peace. But there must be reasonable and proper nexus or relationship between the restrictions and the achievements of public order.
4) Decency or morality: The words ‘morality or decency’ are words of wide meaning. Sections 292 to 294 of the Indian Penal Code provide instances of restrictions on the freedom of speech and expression in the interest of decency or morality. These sections prohibit the sale or distribution or exhibition of obscene words, etc. in public places. No fix standard is laid down till now as to what is moral and indecent. The standard of morality varies from time to time and from place to place.
5) Contempt of Court: Restriction on the freedom of speech and expression can be imposed if it exceeds the reasonable and fair limit and amounts to contempt of court. According to the Section 2 ‘Contempt of court’ may be either ‘civil contempt’ or ‘criminal contempt.’
6) Defamation: A statement, which injures a man’s reputation, amounts to defamation. Defamation consists in exposing a man to hatred, ridicule, or contempt. The civil law in relating to defamation is still uncodified in India and subject to certain exceptions.
7) Incitement to an offence: This ground was also added by the constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951. Obviously, freedom of speech and expression cannot confer a right to incite people to commit offence. The word ‘offence’ is defined as any act or omission made punishable by law for the time being in force.
Sedition: As understood by English law, sedition embraces all those practices whether by words, or writing which are calculated to disturb the tranquility of the State and lead ignorant person to subvert the government. It should be noted that the sedition is not mentioned in clause (2) of Art. 19 as one of the grounds on which restrictions on freedom of speech and expression may be imposed.
CONCLUSION
From this article it can be easily concluded that right to freedom of speech and expression is one of the most important fundamental right. It includes circulating one’s views by words or in writing or through audiovisual instrumentalities, through advertisements and through any other communication channel. It also comprises of right to information, freedom of press etc. Thus this fundamental right has a vast scope.
From the above case law analysis it is evident that the Court has always placed a broad interpretation on the value and content of Article 19(1)(a), making it subjective only to the restrictions permissible under Article 19(2). Efforts by intolerant authorities to curb or suffocate this freedom have always been firmly repelled, more so when public authorities have betrayed autocratic tendencies.
It can also be comprehended that public order holds a lot of significance as a ground of restriction on this fundamental right. But there should be reasonable and proper nexus or relationship between the restriction and achievement of public order. The words ‘in the interest of public order’ include not only utterances as are directly intended to lead to disorder but also those that have the tendency to lead to disorder.
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